Jonathan Edwards and Mary Rowlandson Born Again

American preacher and philosopher (1703–1758)

The Reverend Jonathan Edwards
third President of Princeton University
In function 1758–1758
Preceded by	Aaron Burr, Sr.
Succeeded by	Jacob Dark-green (acting)
Personal details
Built-in	(1703-10-05)October 5, 1703[1] East Windsor, Connecticut, British America
Died	March 22, 1758(1758-03-22) (anile 54)[1] Princeton, New Jersey, British America
Spouse(s)	Sarah Pierpont ​ (m. 1727)​ [two]
Children	Sarah, Jerusha, Esther, Mary, Lucy, Timothy, Susannah, Eunice, Jonathan, Elizabeth, and Pierpont
Alma mater	Yale University
Occupation	Pastor, theologian, missionary
Signature
Theology career
Notable piece of work	"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" Religious Angel
Theological work
Era	Colonial period
Linguistic communication	English
Tradition or motion	Evangelical Calvinist (Puritan) New England theology
Main interests	Revivalism

Jonathan Edwards (October 5, 1703 – March 22, 1758) was an American revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregationalist theologian. Edwards is widely regarded every bit one of America'south nigh important and original philosophical theologians. Edwards' theological work is broad in telescopic, but rooted in the pedobaptist (baptism of infants) Puritan heritage as exemplified in the Westminster and Savoy Confessions of Faith. Recent studies take emphasized how thoroughly Edwards grounded his life's piece of work on conceptions of beauty, harmony, and ethical fittingness, and how central The Enlightenment was to his mindset.^[3] Edwards played a critical function in shaping the First Corking Awakening, and oversaw some of the first revivals in 1733–35 at his church building in Northampton, Massachusetts.^[iv] His theological piece of work gave rising to a distinct school of theology known as New England theology.

Edwards delivered the sermon "Sinners in the Easily of an Angry God", a classic of early on American literature, during another revival in 1741, following George Whitefield's tour of the Thirteen Colonies.^[5] Edwards is well known for his many books, The Cease for Which God Created the World, The Life of David Brainerd, which inspired thousands of missionaries throughout the 19th century, and Religious Affections, which many Calvinist Evangelicals still read today.^[six]

Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation soon after first the presidency at the College of New Jersey in Princeton.^[seven]

He was (posthumously) the grandfather of Aaron Burr,^[1] the third Us vice president.

Biography [edit]

Early life [edit]

Jonathan Edwards was born on October v, 1703, the only son of Timothy Edwards (1668–1759), a government minister at East Windsor, Connecticut (modern-24-hour interval South Windsor), who eked out his salary by tutoring boys for higher. His mother, Esther Stoddard, daughter of Rev. Solomon Stoddard of Northampton, Massachusetts, seems to have been a woman of unusual mental gifts and independence of character.^{[8] [ folio needed ] [9]} Jonathan, their only son, was the fifth of eleven children. Timothy Edwards had at least one slave in their household, a black homo named Ansars.^[ten] Jonathan was trained for college past his father and elder sisters, all of whom received an first-class didactics. His sister Esther, the eldest, wrote a semi-humorous tract on the immateriality of the soul, which has often mistakenly attributed to Jonathan.^{[xi] [ verification needed ]}

He entered Yale College in 1716 at just under the historic period of 13. In the following twelvemonth, he became acquainted with John Locke'southward Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which influenced him profoundly.^[12] During his college studies, he kept notebooks labeled "The Mind," "Natural Scientific discipline" (containing a discussion of the atomic theory), "The Scriptures" and "Miscellanies," had a grand plan for a work on natural and mental philosophy, and drew up rules for its composition.^[9]

He was interested in natural history, and as a precocious 11-year-erstwhile, had observed and written an essay detailing the ballooning behavior of some spiders. Edwards edited this text later to match the burgeoning genre of scientific literature, and his "The Flying Spider" fit easily into the contemporary scholarship on spiders.^{[xiii] [14]} Although he studied theology for 2 years after his graduation from Yale, Edwards continued to be interested in scientific discipline. Although many European scientists and American clergymen found the implications of scientific discipline pushing them towards deism, Edwards went the other way. He believed the natural world was show of God'south masterful design. Throughout his life, Edwards often went into the forest as a favorite place to pray and worship in the beauty and solace of nature.^[15]

Edwards was fascinated by the discoveries of Isaac Newton and other scientists of this time menstruation. Earlier he was called to full-time ministry building work in Northampton, he wrote on various topics in natural philosophy, including flying spiders, light, and eyes. While he worried almost those of his contemporaries who seemed preoccupied by materialism and faith in reason alone, he considered the laws of nature to be derived from God and demonstrating his wisdom and care. Edwards'southward written sermons and theological treatises emphasize the beauty of God and the part of aesthetics in the spiritual life. He is thought to conceptualize a 20th-century current of theological aesthetics, represented by figures such equally Hans Urs von Balthasar.^{[ commendation needed ]}

In 1722 to 1723, he was for 8 months an un-ordained "supply" pastor (a clergyman employed to supply a pulpit for a definite fourth dimension, only not settled equally a pastor) of a small Presbyterian church building on William Street in New York Urban center.^[16] The church building invited him to remain, but he declined the phone call. After spending two months in study at home, in 1724–1726, he was 1 of the two tutors at Yale tasked with leading the college in the absence of a rector. Yale's previous rector, Timothy Cutler, lost his position when he defected to the Anglican Church. Later 2 years, he had not been replaced.^[17]

He partially recorded these years 1720 to 1726 in his diary and in his resolutions for his behave which he drew up at this fourth dimension. He had long been an eager seeker after salvation and was not fully satisfied as to his ain conversion until an experience in his last year in higher, when he lost his feeling that the election of some to salvation and of others to eternal damnation was "a horrible doctrine," and reckoned it "exceedingly pleasant, bright and sweetness." He now took a great and new joy in taking in the beauties of nature and delighted in the allegorical interpretation of the Vocal of Solomon. Balancing these mystic joys is the stern tone of his Resolutions, in which he is about ascetic in his eagerness to live earnestly and soberly, to waste no fourth dimension, to maintain the strictest temperance in eating and drinking.^{[18] [9]}

On Feb 15, 1727, Edwards was ordained government minister at Northampton and assistant to his granddad Solomon Stoddard, a noted minister. He was a scholar-pastor, not a visiting pastor, his rule existence 13 hours of study a solar day.^[ix]

In the same twelvemonth, he married Sarah Pierpont. Then 17, Sarah was from a notable New England clerical family: her begetter was James Pierpont (1659–1714), the caput founder of Yale College; and her female parent was the granddaughter of Thomas Hooker.^[19] Sarah'due south spiritual devotion was without peer, and her relationship with God had long proved an inspiration to Edwards. He first remarked on her great piety when she was 13 years old.^[20] She was of a vivid and cheerful disposition, a practical housekeeper, a model wife, and the mother of his 11 children, who included Esther Edwards.^[9]

Solomon Stoddard died on February 11, 1729, leaving to his grandson the hard chore of the sole ministerial charge of ane of the largest and wealthiest congregations in the colony. Its members were proud of its morality, its culture and its reputation.^{[8] [ folio needed ]} Edwards, in common with all Puritans of his mean solar day, held to complementarian views of matrimony and gender roles.^{[21] [ page needed ]}

Summing upward Edwards' influences during his younger years, scholar John East. Smith writes, "By thus meditating between Berkeley on the ane mitt and Locke, Descartes, and Hobbes on the other, the immature Edwards hoped to rescue Christianity from the deadweight of rationalism and the paralyzing inertia of skepticism."^[22]

Not bad Awakening [edit]

On July viii, 1731,^[23] Edwards preached in Boston the "Public Lecture" afterwards published nether the championship "God Glorified in the Work of Redemption, by the Greatness of Homo'due south Dependence upon Him, in the Whole of It," which was his first public assault on Arminianism. The accent of the lecture was on God's accented sovereignty in the work of conservancy: that while it behooved God to create man pure and without sin, it was of his "good pleasure" and "mere and arbitrary grace" for him to grant any person the organized religion necessary to incline him or her toward holiness, and that God might deny this grace without any disparagement to any of his character. In 1733, a Protestant revival began in Northampton and reached such an intensity in the winter of 1734 and the following spring, that it threatened the business of the town. In 6 months, most 300 of 1100 youths were admitted to the church building.^[9]

The revival gave Edwards an opportunity to study the process of conversion in all its phases and varieties, and he recorded his observations with psychological minuteness and discrimination in A True-blue Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton (1737). A twelvemonth later, he published Discourses on Various Important Subjects, the five sermons which had proved most effective in the revival. Of these, none was so immediately constructive every bit that on the Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners, from the text, "That every mouth may be stopped." Another sermon, published in 1734, A Divine and Supernatural Light, Immediately Imparted to the Soul by the Spirit of God, prepare along what he regarded every bit the inner, moving principle of the revival, the doctrine of a special grace in the immediate, and supernatural divine illumination of the soul.^{[24] [ix]}

By 1735, the revival had spread and popped upward independently beyond the Connecticut River Valley, and possibly as far every bit New Jersey. Nevertheless, criticism of the revival began, and many New Englanders feared that Edwards had led his flock into fanaticism.^[25] Over the summertime of 1735, religious fervor took a dark turn. A number of New Englanders were shaken by the revivals just not converted, and became convinced of their inexorable damnation. Edwards wrote that "multitudes" felt urged—presumably by Satan—to take their ain lives.^[26] At to the lowest degree two people committed suicide in the depths of their spiritual distress, one from Edwards'due south own congregation—his uncle Joseph Hawley II. It is not known if any others took their own lives, but the "suicide craze"^[27] effectively concluded the starting time wave of revival, except in some parts of Connecticut.^[28]

Despite these setbacks and the cooling of religious fervor, word of the Northampton revival and Edwards's leadership function had spread as far as England and Scotland. It was at this time that Edwards became acquainted with George Whitefield, who was traveling the Thirteen Colonies on a revival tour in 1739–twoscore. The 2 men may not have seen eye to eye on every particular. Whitefield was far more comfortable with the strongly emotional elements of revival than Edwards was, but they were both passionate about preaching the Gospel. They worked together to orchestrate Whitefield'southward trip, first through Boston and then to Northampton. When Whitefield preached at Edwards'southward church building in Northampton, he reminded them of the revival they had undergone just a few years before.^[29] This deeply touched Edwards, who wept throughout the entire service, and much of the congregation too was moved.^{[ citation needed ]}

Revival began to spring up again, and Edwards preached his most famous sermon, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, in Enfield, Connecticut in 1741. Though this sermon has been widely reprinted as an example of "burn and brimstone" preaching in the colonial revivals, that characterization is not in keeping with descriptions of Edward's actual preaching style. Edwards did not shout or speak loudly, but talked in a quiet, emotive voice. He moved his audience slowly from point to indicate, towards an inexorable determination: they were lost without the grace of God. While most 21st-century readers notice the damnation looming in such a sermon text, historian George Marsden reminds us that Edwards was non preaching anything new or surprising: "Edwards could have for granted... that a New England audition knew well the Gospel remedy. The trouble was getting them to seek it.".^[thirty]

The motility met with opposition from conservative Congregationalist ministers. In 1741, Edwards published in the defence of revivals The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God, dealing particularly with the phenomena most criticized: the swoonings, outcries, and convulsions. These "bodily furnishings," he insisted, were not distinguishing marks of the piece of work of the Spirit of God one way or another. And then bitter was the feeling against the revival in the more than strictly Puritan churches, that in 1742, he felt moved to write a 2nd apology, Thoughts on the Revival in New England, where his primary argument concerned the groovy moral comeback of the state. In the same pamphlet, he defends an appeal to the emotions, and advocates preaching terror when necessary, even to children, who in God's sight "are young vipers... if not Christ's."^[9]

He considers "bodily effects" incidental to the real piece of work of God. Only his own mystic devotion and the experiences of his wife during the Enkindling (which he recounts in detail) make him think that the divine visitation normally overpowers the trunk, a view in back up of which he quotes Scripture. In respond to Edwards, Charles Chauncy wrote Seasonable Thoughts on the Country of Religion in New England in 1743 and anonymously penned The Late Religious Commotions in New England Considered in the same year. In these works, he urged conduct as the sole test of conversion. The general convention of Congregational ministers in the Province of Massachusetts Bay seemed to hold, protesting "against disorders in do which take of late obtained in various parts of the land." In spite of Edwards's able pamphlet, the impression had become widespread that "bodily effects" were recognized past the promoters of the Corking Awakening as the true tests of conversion.^[31]

To offset this feeling, during the years 1742 and 1743, Edwards preached at Northampton a series of sermons published under the title of Religious Affections (1746), a restatement in a more philosophical and full general tone of his ideas as to "distinguishing marks." In 1747, he joined the movement started in Scotland chosen the "concert in prayer," and in the same twelvemonth published An Humble Attempt to Promote Explicit Agreement and Visible Marriage of God'south People in Extraordinary Prayer for the Revival of Organized religion and the Advancement of Christ's Kingdom on Earth. In 1749, he published a memoir of David Brainerd, who had lived with his family for several months and had died at Northampton in 1747. Brainerd had been constantly attended past Edwards's daughter Jerusha, to whom he was rumored to have been engaged to be married,^[31] though at that place is no surviving bear witness of this. In the grade of elaborating his theories of conversion, Edwards used Brainerd and his ministry as a case study, making extensive notes of his conversions and confessions.^{[ commendation needed ]}

After years [edit]

Edwards, Rev. Jonathan (July 8, 1741), Sinners in the Hands of an Aroused God, A Sermon Preached at Enfield

Edwards owned as slaves several black children and adults during his lifetime,^{[32] [33]} including a young teenager named Venus who was kidnapped in Africa and whom he purchased in 1731, a boy named Titus, and a woman named Leah. In a 1741 pamphlet, Edwards dedicated enslaving people who were debtors, war captives, or were born enslaved in North America, but rejected the trans-Atlantic slave trade.^[34]

Later on being dismissed from the pastorate, he ministered to a tribe of Mohicans in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. In 1748, there had come a crisis in his relations with his congregation. The One-half-Mode Covenant, adopted past the synods of 1657 and 1662, had fabricated baptism lone the condition to the civil privileges of church membership, simply non of participation in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Edwards's grandfather and predecessor in the pastorate, Solomon Stoddard, had been even more than liberal, holding that the Supper was a converting ordinance and that baptism was a sufficient title to all the privileges of the church building.^[31]

As early equally 1744, Edwards, in his sermons on Religious Affections, had apparently intimated his dislike of this practice. In the same twelvemonth, he had published in a church coming together the names of certain young people, members of the church, who were suspected of reading improper books, and also the names of those who were to be chosen as witnesses in the case. It has often been reported that the witnesses and accused were not distinguished on this list, and so the entire congregation was in an uproar. Withal, Patricia Tracy's research has cast doubtfulness on this version of the events, noting that in the listing he read from, the names were definitely distinguished. Those involved were somewhen disciplined for boldness to the investigators rather than for the original incident. In whatever case, the incident further deteriorated the human relationship between Edwards and the congregation.^{[35] [ page needed ]}

Edwards's preaching became unpopular. For four years, no candidate presented himself for admission to the church, and when one eventually did, in 1748, he was met with Edwards's formal tests as expressed in the Distinguishing Marks and later in Qualifications for Total Communion, 1749 . The candidate refused to submit to them, the church backed him, and the break between the church and Edwards was complete. Even permission to discuss his views in the pulpit was refused. He was allowed to present his views on Thursday afternoons. His sermons were well attended by visitors, but non his ain congregation. A quango was convened to decide the communion affair between the minister and his people. The congregation chose half the council, and Edwards was allowed to select the other half of the council. His congregation, however, express his selection to one county where the bulk of the ministers were against him. The ecclesiastical council voted by 10 to 9 that the pastoral relation be dissolved.^[31]

The church members, past a vote of more 200 to 23, ratified the activity of the council, and finally a town coming together voted that Edwards should non exist allowed to occupy the Northampton pulpit, though he connected to live in the town and preach in the church by the request of the congregation until October 1751. In his "Farewell Sermon" he preached from two Corinthians 1:14 and directed the thoughts of his people to that far time to come when the minister and his people would stand up earlier God. In a letter to Scotland later on his dismissal, he expresses his preference for Presbyterian to congregational polity. His position at the time was not unpopular throughout New England. His doctrine that the Lord's Supper is not a cause of regeneration and that communicants should be professing Protestants has since (largely through the efforts of his pupil Joseph Bellamy) become a standard of New England Congregationalism.^[31]

Edwards was in loftier demand. A parish in Scotland could have been procured, and he was called to a Virginia church. He declined both, to become in 1751, pastor of the church building in Stockbridge, Massachusetts and a missionary to the Housatonic Indians, taking over for the recently deceased John Sergeant. To the Indians, he preached through an interpreter, and their interests he boldly and successfully defended past attacking the whites who were using their official positions among them to increase their private fortunes. During this fourth dimension he got to know Judge Joseph Dwight who was Trustee of the Indian Schools. In Stockbridge, he wrote the Humble Relation, also called Reply to Williams (1752), which was an answer to Solomon Williams (1700–76), a relative and a bitter opponent of Edwards equally to the qualifications for full communion. He at that place composed the treatises on which his reputation every bit a philosophical theologian chiefly rests, the essay on Original Sin, the Dissertation Concerning the Nature of Truthful Virtue, the Dissertation Concerning the Terminate for which God created the World, and the neat work on the Volition, written in four and a half months, and published in 1754 under the championship, An Research into the Modern Prevailing Notions Respecting that Freedom of the Volition which is supposed to exist Essential to Moral Agency.^[31]

Aaron Burr, Sr., Edwards' son-in-law, died in 1757 (he had married Esther Edwards five years before, and they had made Edwards the granddaddy of Aaron Burr, later U.Due south. vice president). Edwards felt himself in "the reject of life", and inadequate to the office, just was persuaded to replace Burr as president of the Higher of New Jersey (now Princeton University). He arrived in January, 1758 and was installed on February 16, 1758. He gave weekly essay assignments in theology to the senior class.^[36]

Almost immediately after condign president of the College of New Jersey, Edwards, a stiff supporter of smallpox inoculations, decided to get inoculated himself in order to encourage others to do the same. Never having been in robust health, he died as a result of the inoculation on March 22, 1758. Edwards left behind eleven children (3 sons and eight daughters).^[9]

Gravesite [edit]

The grave of Edwards is located in Princeton Cemetery. Written in Latin, the long emotional epitaph inscription on the horizontal gravestone eulogizes his life and career and laments the smashing loss of his passing.^[37] It draws from the classical tradition in extolling the virtues of the deceased and directly inviting the passerby to suspension and mourn.

Legacy [edit]

Engraving of Edwards by R Babson & J Andrews

The followers of Jonathan Edwards and his disciples came to exist known as the New Lite Calvinist ministers, every bit opposed to the traditional Sometime Light Calvinist ministers. Prominent disciples included the New Divinity school's Samuel Hopkins, Joseph Bellamy and Jonathan Edwards's son Jonathan Edwards Jr., and Gideon Hawley. Through a practice of amateur ministers living in the homes of older ministers, they eventually filled a large number of pastorates in the New England surface area. Many of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards'due south descendants became prominent citizens in the Us, including the third U.Due south. vice president Aaron Burr and the College Presidents Timothy Dwight, Jonathan Edwards Jr. and Merrill Edwards Gates. Jonathan and Sarah Edwards were also ancestors of Edith Roosevelt, the writer O. Henry, the publisher Frank Nelson Doubleday and the writer Robert Lowell.^{[ citation needed ]}

Edwards'due south writings and beliefs continue to influence individuals and groups to this day. Early American Lath of Commissioners for Strange Missions missionaries were influenced past Edwards's writings, as is evidenced in reports in the ABCFM's periodical "The Missionary Herald," and showtime with Perry Miller's seminal work, Edwards enjoyed a renaissance among scholars after the cease of the Second Earth War. The Banner of Truth Trust and other publishers go on to reprint Edwards's works, and nearly of his major works are now bachelor through the series published past Yale University Press, which has spanned three decades and supplies disquisitional introductions past the editor of each volume. Yale has also established the Jonathan Edwards Project online. Author and instructor, Elisabeth Woodbridge Morris, memorialized him, her paternal ancestor (3rd not bad granddad) in ii books, The Jonathan Papers (1912), and More than Jonathan Papers (1915). In 1933, he became the namesake of Jonathan Edwards Higher, the first of the 12 residential colleges of Yale, and The Jonathan Edwards Center at Yale Academy was founded to provide scholarly information about Edwards' writings. Edwards is remembered today as a teacher and missionary past the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on March 22. The gimmicky poet Susan Howe often describes the limerick of Edwards' manuscripts and notebooks held at the Beinecke Rare Volume and Manuscript Library in a number of her books of poetry and prose, including Souls of the Labadie Tract, 2007 and That This, 2010 . She notes how some of Edwards' notebooks were hand sewn from silk paper that his sisters and married woman used for making fans.^[38] Howe also argues in My Emily Dickinson that Emily Dickinson was formatively influenced by Edwards'due south writings, and that she "took both his legend and his learning, tore them free from his ain humorlessness and the dead weight of doctrinaire Calvinism, then practical the freshness of his perception to the dead weight of American poetry every bit she knew it."^[39]

Progeny [edit]

The eminence of many descendants of Edwards led some Progressive Era scholars to view him as proof of eugenics.^{[forty] [41] [42]} His descendants have had a disproportionate outcome upon American civilization: his biographer George Marsden notes that "the Edwards family unit produced scores of clergymen, 13 presidents of higher learning, threescore-five professors, and many other persons of notable achievements."^[43]

Works [edit]

The Beinecke Rare Volume & Manuscript Library at Yale University holds the majority of Edwards' surviving manuscripts, including over one m sermons, notebooks, correspondence, printed materials, and artifacts.^[44] Two of Edwards' manuscript sermons and other related historical texts are held past The Presbyterian Historical Lodge in Philadelphia.^[45]

The entire corpus of Edwards' works, including previously unpublished works, is available online through the Jonathan Edwards Middle at Yale University website.^[46] The Works of Jonathan Edwards projection at Yale has been bringing out scholarly editions of Edwards based on fresh transcriptions of his manuscripts since the 1950s; there are 26 volumes then far. Many of Edwards' works have been regularly reprinted. Some of the major works include:

• Clemency and its Fruits
• Protestant Charity or The Duty of Charity to the Poor, Explained and Enforced (1732)
• A Dissertation Apropos the Stop for Which God Created the World
• Contains Freedom of the Will and Dissertation on Virtue, slightly modified for easier reading
• Distinguishing Marks of a Piece of work of the Spirit of God
• A Divine and Supernatural Calorie-free, Immediately Imparted to the Soul by the Spirit of God (1734)
• A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton
• The Freedom of the Will
• A History of the Work of Redemption including a View of Church building History
• The Life and Diary of David Brainerd, Missionary to the Indians
• The Nature of True Virtue
• Original Sin
• Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival in New England and the Way it Ought to be Best-selling and Promoted
• Religious Affections

Sermons [edit]

The text of many of Edwards's sermons have been preserved, some are still published and read today among general anthologies of American literature. Among his more than well-known sermons are:^{[ commendation needed ]}

• "The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners"
• "The Fashion of Seeking Conservancy"
• "Pressing into the Kingdom of God"
• "Sinners in the Hands of an Aroused God"

See likewise [edit]

• Amende (governmental view)
• American philosophy
• Colonial America
• Mission House (Stockbridge, Massachusetts)
• New England Dwight family unit

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Jonathan Edwards: Biography". Jonathan Edwards Center. Yale University. Retrieved September thirteen, 2009.
2. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 93–95, 105–12, 242–49, 607.
3. ^ Lee 2005, pp. 34–41.
4. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 150–63.
5. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 214–26.
6. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 499.
7. ^ "Jonathan Edwards at the College of New Jersey". Princeton University. Archived from the original on December 24, 2012.
8. ^ ^{a b} Marsden 2003.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Gardiner 1911, p. iii. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGardiner1911 (help)
10. ^ Minkema, Kenneth P. (1997). "Jonathan Edwards on Slavery and the Slave Trade". The William and Mary Quarterly. 54 (4): 823–834. doi:10.2307/2953884. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2953884.
11. ^ Kenneth P. Minkema, "The Authorship of 'The Soul,'" Duke University Library Gazette 65 (Oct 1990):26–32.
12. ^ Smith, John E.; Stout, Harry S.; Minkema, Kenneth P., eds. (1995). A Jonathan Edwards Reader . New Oasis: Yale Academy Press. p. xx. ISBN978-0-300-06203-8.
13. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 66.
14. ^ Wilson, David South. (1971). "The Flight Spider". Journal of the History of Ideas. 32 (3): 447–458. doi:x.2307/2708360. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2708360.
15. ^ Edwards, Jonathan (1840). Hickman, Edward (ed.). The Works of Jonathan Edwards, A.M. Essay by Henry Rodgers. Memoir by Sereno East. Dwight. London: Brawl, Arnold, and Co. p. 54. OCLC 4577834.
16. ^ Everdell, William R. (2021). The Evangelical Counter-Enlightenment: From Ecstasy to Fundamentalism in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam in the 18th Century. Springer Nature. ISBN978-3-030-69762-iv.
17. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 46, 101.
18. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 51.
19. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 87, 93.
20. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 93–95, 95–100, 105–9, 241–42.
21. ^ Dodds, Elisabeth D. (1971). Marriage to a Hard Man: The Uncommon Spousal relationship of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. ISBN978-0-664-20900-1.
22. ^ Smith, John E.; Stout, Harry S.; Minkema, Kenneth P., eds. (1995). A Jonathan Edwards Reader . New Haven: Yale Academy Press. p. xii. ISBN978-0-300-06203-8.
23. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 140.
24. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 156–157.
25. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 161–162.
26. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 168.
27. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 168, 541.
28. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 163–169.
29. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 206–212.
30. ^ Marsden 2003, p. 224.
31. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Gardiner 1911, p. 4. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGardiner1911 (help)
32. ^ Sweeney, Douglas A. (2010). Jonathan Edwards and the Ministry of the Word: A Model of Faith and Thought. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Printing. pp. 66–68. ISBN978-0-8308-7941-0. ...they owned several slaves. Beginning in June 1731, Edwards joined the slave merchandise, buying 'a Negro Girle named Venus ages Fourteen years or thereabout' in Newport, at an sale, for 'the Sum of Eighty pounds.'
33. ^ Stinson, Susan (April 5, 2012). "The Other Side of the Paper: Jonathan Edwards as Slave-Possessor". Valley Advocate . Retrieved Oct 5, 2017.
34. ^ Minkema, Kenneth P. (2002). "Jonathan Edwards's Defense of Slavery" (PDF). Massachusetts Historical Review (Race & Slavery). 4: 23–59. ISSN 1526-3894. Edwards defended the traditional definition of slaves as those who were debtors, children of slaves, and war captives; for him, the trade in slaves born in North America remained legitimate.
35. ^ Tracy, Patricia J. (2006) [1980]. Jonathan Edwards, Pastor: Faith and Society in Eighteenth Century Northampton. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN978-1-59752-612-8.
36. ^ Leitch 1978, pp. 151–152.
37. ^ Dod, William Armstrong (1844). History of the College of New Bailiwick of jersey: From Its Outset, A.D., 1746, to 1783. Princeton: J.T. Robinson. p. xv. OCLC 32788003.
38. ^ HOWE, SUSAN (2009). "Choir answers to Choir: Notes on Jonathan Edwards and Wallace Stevens". Chicago Review. 54 (4): 51–61. ISSN 0009-3696. JSTOR 25742542.
39. ^ Howe, Susan (1985). My Emily Dickinson. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. p. 51. ISBN978-0-938190-53-0.
40. ^ Winship, Albert E. (1900). "A Written report of Jonathan Edwards". Jukes-Edwards: A Study in Pedagogy and Heredity. Harrisburg: R. L. Myers & Co. OCLC 22842812.
41. ^ Popenoe, Paul; Johnson, Roswell Hill (Feb 10, 1921). "Practical Eugenics". Nature. 106 (2676): 752–753. Bibcode:1921Natur.106..752.. doi:ten.1038/106752a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4095859.
42. ^ Lombardo, Paul A. (April 1, 2012). "Return of the Jukes: Eugenic Mythologies and Internet Evangelism". Periodical of Legal Medicine. 33 (2): 207–233. doi:10.1080/01947648.2012.686798. ISSN 0194-7648. PMID 22694094. S2CID 38739509.
43. ^ Marsden 2003, pp. 500–501.
44. ^ "Jonathan Edwards Collection". Beinecke Rare Volume & Manuscript Library. Yale University. Retrieved Oct 15, 2017. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
45. ^ "Guide to the Jonathan Edwards and Jonathan Edwards the Younger Papers". Presbyterian Historical Society. Retrieved October 15, 2017. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
46. ^ "Browse WJE Online". Jonathan Edwards Center. Yale Academy. Retrieved Oct fifteen, 2017. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

Works cited [edit]

• One or more than of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication at present in the public domain:Gardiner, Harry Norman; Webster, Richard (1911). "Edwards, Jonathan". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. nine (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–6.
• Leitch, Alexander (1978). A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-04654-9. JSTOR j.ctt13x0zx2. .
• Marsden, George Grand. (2003). Jonathan Edwards: A Life. New Oasis: Yale Academy Press. ISBN978-0-300-09693-iv. JSTOR j.ctt1npmjj.
• Lee, Sang Hyun, ed. (2005). The Princeton Companion to Jonathan Edwards. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-12108-vi. .

Further reading [edit]

• Crisp, Oliver D. (2015). Jonathan Edwards Among the Theologians. Yard Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN978-0-8028-7172-five.
• Delattre, Roland André (1968). Beauty and Sensibility in the Thought of Jonathan Edwards: An Essay in Aesthetics and Theological Ideals. New Oasis: Yale University Press. OCLC 422152084.
• Fiering, Norman (1981). Jonathan Edwards'due south Moral Thought and Its British Context. Chapel Colina: University of North Carolina Printing. ISBN978-0-8078-1473-4.
• Frazer, Greg Fifty. (2012). The Religious Beliefs of America'south Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN978-0-7006-1845-3.
• Gerstner, John H (1991–1993). The Rational Biblical Theology of Jonathan Edwards, in three volumes. Powhatan: Berea Publications.
• Gerstner, John H. (1987). Jonathan Edwards: A Mini-theology. Wheaton: Tyndale House. ISBN978-0-8423-1956-0.
• Glazier, Stephen D. Jonathan Edwards and Isaac Backus on Liberty of the Will. Unpublished STM Thesis, 2021. Yale University. This thesis examined the language of Jonathan Edwards's Freedom of the Will and its influence (or lack of influence) on Isaac Backus (1724-1806). The focus was on Edwards's and Backus's ideas about Liberty and Liberty from the perspective provided by Kenneth Burke in The Rhetoric of Organized religion and A Grammar of Motives.
• Hatch, Nathan Orr; Stout, Harry S., eds. (1988). Jonathan Edwards and the American Experience. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-505118-6.
• Holmes, Stephen R. (2000). God of Grace, God of Glory: The Theology of Jonathan Edwards. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. ISBN978-0-567-08748-v.
• Jenson, Robert Westward. (1988). America's Theologian: A Recommendation of Jonathan Edwards . New York: Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-19-504941-1.
• Kimnach, Wilson H.; Maskell, Caleb J.D.; Minkema, Kenneth P., eds. (2010). Jonathan Edwards's "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God": A Casebook. New Haven: Yale University Printing. ISBN978-0-300-14038-five.
• Lee, Sang Hyun (1988). The Philosophical Theology of Jonathan Edwards: Expanded Edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-07325-5.
• McClenahan, Michael (2012). Jonathan Edwards and Justification past Faith. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN978-ane-4094-4178-6.
• McDermott, Gerald R. (1992). One Holy and Happy Society: The Public Theology of Jonathan Edwards. University Park: Pennsylvania State Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-271-00850-9.
• Murray, Iain H. (1987). Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. ISBN978-0-85151-494-ix.
• Noll, Marking A. (2002). America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-515111-4.
• Parkes, Henry Bamford (1930). Jonathan Edwards, the Fiery Puritan. New York: Minton, Balch & Company. OCLC 250776093.
• Piper, John (2004). A God Entranced Vision of All Things: The Legacy of Jonathan Edwards. Wheaton: Crossway Books. ISBN978-ane-58134-563-half-dozen.
• Stout, Harry S.; Minkema, Kenneth P.; Neele, Adriaan C., eds. (2017). The Jonathan Edwards Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN978-0-8028-6952-4.
• Winslow, Ola Elizabeth (1940). Jonathan Edwards, 1703–1756. New York: Macmillan Company. OCLC 749006808.
• Zakai, Avihu (2003). Jonathan Edwards's Philosophy of History: The Reenchantment of the World in the Age of Enlightenment. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-09654-4.

External links [edit]

• Jonathan Edwards Center, Yale University. Complete online critical edition of Edwards.
• Jonathan Edwards Collection. General Drove located at the Beinecke Rare Volume and Manuscript Library.
• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Perspectives in American Literature – A Enquiry and Reference Guide. A bibliography for Edwards.
• Works past Jonathan Edwards at Post-Reformation Digital Library. A finding list of eighteenth-century published works past Edwards in the public domain.
• Works past or about Jonathan Edwards at Internet Annal
• Works past Jonathan Edwards at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

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Preceded by Aaron Burr, Sr.	President of the Higher of New Jersey 1758–1758	Succeeded by Jacob Green (Interim) Samuel Davies

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)

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